Introduction
In ancient times, the region of Uttar Pradesh, situated in the Gangetic plain, was referred to as ‘Madhya Desh.’ It encompassed significant Mahajanapadas like Kuru, Panchala, Kashi, Kosala, Surasena, Chedi, Vatsa, and Malla, making it the center of later-Vedic culture. Positioned along the path of invaders from the North-West and being a part of the fertile plains between Delhi and Patna, the history of Uttar Pradesh is intricately intertwined with the history of North India.
Classification of History
History is typically divided into three parts: Prehistory, Proto-History, and History.
Prehistory encompasses civilisations in which humans were unfamiliar with the art of writing and relied on stone tools.
Proto-History includes civilisations where metals were used and scripts were known, but no written evidence is available.
History, on the other hand, focuses on civilisations and events with written evidence. History is studied by dividing it into ancient, medieval, and modern periods.
Prehistory (Stone Age)
The discovery of lithic civilisations in India dates back to 1863 when Robert Bruce Foote of the Geological Survey of India found a lithic deposit at Pallavaram, Tamil Nadu. Since then, remains of stone cultures have been found in many states of India, including Uttar Pradesh. The stone culture is divided into three periods: Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic.
Evidence of Palaeolithic civilisation in Uttar Pradesh has been found in ancient sites such as Belan Valley in Prayagraj, Singrauli Valley in Sonbhadra, and Chakia in Chandauli. The discovery and excavation of archaeological sites in the Belan River valley were conducted under the direction of Prof. G.R. Sharma from Allahabad University. Along with stone tools, a bone statue of a mother goddess has also been found in an area called Lohda Nala in the Belan Valley. Almost all the tools from this civilisation are made of quartzite stones. Based on the evidence from these sites, it can be inferred that they did not have knowledge of fire, agriculture, or house construction. However, there is evidence of some familiarity with animal husbandry.
Evidence of Mesolithic culture in the state has been found at various sites, including Morhana Pahad, Baghhikhor, and Lekhahiya in Mirzapur-Sonbhadra; archaeological sites in Meja, Karchana, Phulpur, Koraon, Bara, and other tehsils of Prayagraj; as well as ancient sites like Saraya Nahar Rai, Mahdaha, and Damdama in Pratapgarh. The tools from this culture are finer, smoother, and more aesthetically pleasing than those from the Palaeolithic period. Fifteen burials have been discovered at Sarayanahar, with the heads of the deceased oriented towards the west. Remains of huts and pottery have been found at the Chopnimando archaeological site in Meja tehsil of Prayagraj. In addition to tools, evidence of cobblestones, pit stoves, as well as bone and horn ornaments, have been found at the Mahdaha site. Therefore, it is clear that compared to the Palaeolithic period, humans from this period were familiar with some aspects of agriculture and animal husbandry, practiced cremation for the deceased, and cooked food over fire. For more details see : मध्यपाषाणकाल .
The evidence of Neolithic civilisation in Uttar Pradesh is found in various sites such as Koldihwa, Mahagada, and Panchoh sites in Belan Valley, Prayagraj district, as well as in Mirzapur-Sonbhadra and Pratapgarh districts. The stone tools from this period are more refined, smoother, and sharper compared to those from the Mesolithic period. Neolithic sites in Belan Valley show evidence of hut building, agriculture, pottery making, and animal husbandry. Therefore, it is evident that Neolithic culture was more developed than its predecessor cultures. People of this period were knowledgeable about agriculture, animal husbandry, pottery making, painting, polishing, house construction, and crafting clothes from animal skins.For more details see : नवपाषाणकाल .
Proto-historic period
After the end of the Stone Age, the era of metal usage began. Initially, humans used copper, followed by bronze, and eventually iron. The culture that emerged immediately after the Stone Age but before the Indus Valley culture is called Chalcolithic culture, during which stone and copper tools were used together. Evidence of Chalcolithic civilisation has been discovered in the lower levels of archaeological sites within the Indus Valley civilisation. In Uttar Pradesh, evidence of Chalcolithic civilisation has been found at the archaeological sites of Meerut and Saharanpur.
After the Chalcolithic civilisation, the Bronze Age civilisation emerged. The Indus Valley Civilisation represents this Bronze Age civilisation. It reached its fully developed state around 2500 BC. Evidence of this urban civilisation has been discovered in Balochistan, Sindh, and Punjab provinces of Pakistan, as well as in Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Jammu and Kashmir, and Western Uttar Pradesh in India. In Uttar Pradesh, evidence of this civilisation has been found in places like Alamgirpur (Meerut), Baragaon, and Hulas (Saharanpur). According to recent discoveries, evidence of this civilisation has also been found at the Bhatpura and Manpura sites in Bulandshahr, as well as in Mandi village and the Kairana area of Muzaffarnagar.
The civilisation that existed after the Indus Valley Civilisation and before the Vedic Civilisation is called the later Indus Valley Civilisation . Evidence of the Later Indus Valley civilization is found in the following places: Baluchistan, Sindh, and Punjab in Pakistan; Punjab, Gujarat, Rajasthan, and Haryana in India, as well as Alamgirpur (Meerut) and Hulas (Saharanpur) in Uttar Pradesh, etc.
In addition to the mentioned sites, copper objects have been found in districts like Kanpur, Unnao, Mirzapur, and Mathura, which have been linked to the Later Indus Valley civilisation. North of Alamgirpur, the Indus people cultivated cotton, and the people of this civilisation lived in villages instead of cities. For more details see : ताम्रपाषाण संस्कृतियाँ .
Vedic Age
The new civilisation that developed in India after the Indus Valley and North Indus civilisation s is known as the Vedic or Aryan civilisation . The history of India is, in a way, the history of the Aryan race. The developmental journey of the Vedic civilisation started around 1500 BC and lasted until 500 BC, spreading from the Indus River region (Pakistan) to Bengal (India). This civilisation is divided into two parts: (1) the Early or Rig Vedic period and (2) the Later Vedic period.
During the Rig Vedic period, the Aryan civilisation was limited to the Punjab and Sindh regions where the Panchajanas resided. The Panchajanas included Anu, Druhya, Yadu, Puru, and Turvas. The ruler of each group was called ‘Rajan’ (a king). The main source to understand the history of this period is only the Rigveda. For more details see : ऋग्वैदिक काल .
The culture of the Later Vedic period (Iron age) developed against the backdrop of Rigvedic culture. By this time, Vedic culture had spread to almost the entire northern India, including Uttar Pradesh and Bengal. The main centre of the later Vedic culture was Madhya Desh (Uttar Pradesh), which extended from Saraswati to the Ganga Doab. It included vast kingdoms like Kuru and Panchal. Besides these two states, there were other small states as well, each having established permanent capitals and basic governance systems. The dominance of the Kuru kingdom extended to Meerut, Delhi, and Thaneshwar, with its capital in Asandivat. Parikshit and Janamejaya were the kings of this kingdom, while the Panchalas extended their rule to areas like Bareilly, Badaun, Farrukhabad, etc., with Kampilya as their capital. In the Kuru-Panchal regions, great sages like Bhardwaj, Yajnavalkya, Vashishtha, Vishwamitra, Valmiki, etc., lived in penance. Among the four types of pottery from this period (black-red, painted gray, and red pottery with black coating), remains of red pottery have been found throughout Uttar Pradesh. The history of this period is known to us through the Samhitas developed based on Rigveda (Samaveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda), Brahmin, Aranyaka, and Upanishads, dating from around 1000 to 500 BC. For more details see : उत्तर वैदिक काल .
Epic Period
In the final stages of the Later Vedic period, two very special epics—Ramayana and Mahabharata—were composed in Uttar Pradesh, serving as the main sources of history from that time. During this period, the Aryan civilisation had expanded eastwards, reaching up to Anga. The prominent states of this era included Kuru, Panchal, Kaushambi, Kosal, Kashi, Videha, Magadha, Anga, and others.
The story of Ramayana is related to the Ikshvaku dynasty of the Kosala (Ayodhya) kingdom, while the story of Mahabharata is associated with the Kuru dynasty of Hastinapur. Maharishi Valmiki composed Ramayana in Brahmavarta (Vithur-Kanpur), and Vedvyas Ji was the author of Mahabharata. Both these epics provide valuable insights into the economic, social, religious, and political conditions of contemporary society. For more details see : महाकाव्य काल .
Mahajanapada Period
It is known from the Buddhist text Anguttarnikaya that at the beginning of the 6th century BC, the whole of Northern India was divided into 16 major states. Although these states were more extensive and powerful than the states of the post-Vedic period, none of them were able to unify the country politically. Many of these 16 Mahajanapadas had been in existence since the later Vedic period. Out of these 16 Mahajanapadas in North India, 8 were located within the territory of present-day Uttar Pradesh. The details are as follows:
| Mahajanapada | Capital | Expansion |
| Kuru | Indraprastha | Covering modern Meerut, Delhi, Thanesar. |
| Panchala
|
Ahichhatra
Kampilya |
Covering the area of western Uttar Pradesh up to the east of river Yamuna up to the Kosala Janapada. |
| Vatsa | Kausambi | Covering the modern districts Prayagraj, Mirzapur etc. |
| Surasena | Mathura | Covering Brij Mandala |
| Kosala | Shravasti | Covering the present district of Ayodhya, Gonda, Bahraich etc. |
| Malla | Kusinara
Pawa |
Covering the Modern districts of Deoria, Basti, Gorakhpur, Siddharthnagar in the eastern UP. |
| Kasi | Varanasi | Covering the modern Varanasi district. |
| Chedi | Shuktimati | Covering the modern Bundelkhand area. |
In the above-mentioned 8 Mahajanapadas, there were two types of governance systems: monarchy and republic. Malla Mahajanapada had a republican system of governance, while the rest were monarchies.
In ‘Buddhist India’ written by T.W. Rhys Davids, 10 republics of the Buddhist period are mentioned, the details of which are as follows:
- Sakyas of Kapilavastu
- Bhaggas of Sumsumaragiri
- Kalamas of Kesaputta
- Koliyas of Ramagrama
- Mallas of Kusinara
- Mallas of Pava
- Moriyas of Pipphalivana
- Lichchhavis of Vaisali
- Videha of Mithila
- Bulis of Alakappa
Of these 10 republics, excluding the last three (Licchavi, Videha, and Buli), the remaining 7 Gana Sanghas were located in present-day Uttar Pradesh. For detailed information, please refer to : बुद्धकालीन गणराज्य ।
Jainism, Buddhism and other religions
The 6th century B.C. indeed marked a significant period in Indian history, with the decline of the old Vedic tradition and the emergence of new philosophical ideas, leading to the rise of religious sects such as Jainism and Buddhism.
Nirgranthas discuss as many as sixty-two systems of doctrines before Buddhism arose. Some Jain works like Sutra-Kritanga gives their number as 363. Some of these were Ajivikas, Nirgranthas, Jatilakas, etc. Some of the prominent teachers of these sects were Purana Kassapa, Makkhali Gosal, Ajitkeshakambalin, Nigantha Natputta and Sanjaya Belatthaputta.
Jainism
Although Mahavir Swami, the 24th Tirthankara of Jainism, was born in Vaishali (Bihar), the number of his followers was more in Uttar Pradesh. Before Mahavir Swami, famous Tirthankaras like Parshvanath (Varanasi), Sambharnath, Chandraprabha etc. were born in Uttar Pradesh. One of the two major centers of Jainism in Northern India (Mathura and Ujjain) was located in Uttar Pradesh. Even during the Kushan period, Mathura was a prosperous centre of Jainism. Many evidences related to Jainism have been found from Mathura.
Buddhism
Gautam Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, was born in a place called Lumbini in Nepal. His father, Shuddhodhana, was the elected king of a small republic called Kapilvastu, which was the center of the Shakya clan. Kapilvastu is located in the Siddharthnagar district of present-day Uttar Pradesh. His mother, Mahamaya Devi, was the daughter of the Koliya Republic of Ramgram (Gorakhpur). Gautam Buddha left his home at the age of 29, an event known as Mahabhinishkraman. He attained enlightenment in Bodh Gaya and delivered his first sermon at Sarnath (also known as Rishipatna or Mrigadava), an event known as ‘Dharmachakra Pravartan’. Buddha delivered most of his teachings in Shravasti, the capital of the Kosala Mahajanapada. Buddha passed away at the age of 80 in Kushinara (present-day Kushinagar) in 483 BC. The three historically significant events of Buddha’s life – his birth, enlightenment, and Mahaparinirvana – all occurred on ‘Vaishakh Purnima’. Since most of Gautam Buddha’s ascetic life was spent in Uttar Pradesh, this state is often referred to as the “cradle of Buddhism.”
Other religions
Ancient idols of deities from the Brahmin religion, such as Vishnu, Vasudev, Surya, Kartikeya, Varaha, Durga, and Lakshmi, have been discovered in Mathura, Uttar Pradesh. A recent excavation in Sonkh (Mathura) revealed a Kushan period temple, providing evidence of Brahmin religious practices. Mathura can indeed be considered the birthplace of Indian sculpture. Additionally, temples associated with Brahminism were built in various periods in cities like Varanasi, Prayagraj, Ballia, Ghazipur, Jhansi, and Kanpur.
Urbanisation
During the Buddha period, six metropolises developed in the Ganga valley: Shravasti, Saket, Kaushambi, Varanasi, Rajgriha, and Champa. Among these, except for the last two, the remaining four were located in present-day Uttar Pradesh. Additionally, major cities in Uttar Pradesh at that time included Mathura, Hastinapur, Ahichchhatra, and others.
The Rise of Magadha
Magadha, situated in the areas of present-day Patna and Gaya Shahabad districts of Bihar, was a significant state in ancient India that organized itself into a powerful monarchy during the Buddha period. Over time, the history of Magadha became synonymous with the history of entire India. Between the rise of the Magadha Empire and the establishment of the Maurya Dynasty, the Haryak Dynasty, Shaishunag Dynasty, and Nanda Dynasty ruled this region. The true founder of the Magadha Empire was Bimbisara of the Haryanka dynasty. Following Bimbisara, his son Ajatashatru extended his rule over Bihar as well as almost half of Uttar Pradesh. The most influential king of the Magadha Empire was Mahapadmananda, the founder of the Nanda dynasty. During his reign, an empire was established for the first time, stretching across North India, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Punjab, Karnataka, and Orissa. The entire empire experienced comprehensive progress during this period. Alexander attempted an invasion during Mahapadmananda’s time, but he did not proceed beyond the Vyas river due to fear.
The Mauryan Age
The Maurya dynasty was established in Magadha by Chandragupta Maurya in 323 BC after defeating the Nanda dynasty. Due to its conquests, the Magadha Empire extended from Saurashtra in the west to Bengal in the east and from the Himalayas in the north to Karnataka in the south. Chandragupta Maurya defeated Seleucus and captured four northwestern provinces – Aria, Paropnisidae, Arachosia, and Gedrosia. In this way, the Mauryas in the northwest had secured the scientific frontier around 2300 BC, a feat that the Mughals in the medieval period and the British in the modern period yearned for. After Chandragupta Maurya, his son Bindusara and then Bindusara’s son Ashoka ascended the throne of the Maurya Empire.
Ashoka was indeed a remarkable ruler. He conquered Kalinga in the eighth year of his coronation (261 BC). In his early life, Ashoka followed the Brahmin religion but later embraced Buddhism. He traveled to Lumbini and also initiated construction work there. The code of conduct introduced by Ashoka for the moral upliftment of his people is known as ‘Dhamma’. Ashoka was the first ruler in the world who considered all living beings equal in his eyes.
The source of Ashoka’s history lies in his inscriptions. More than 40 of his records have been recovered so far. Among these 40 inscriptions, the ones found in Uttar Pradesh are as follows: (1) Small inscription of Ahraura (Mirzapur), (2) Pillar inscription of Topra (Khizrabad-Saharanpur), (3) Pillar inscription of Meerut, (4) Pillar inscription of Kaushambi, and (5) Small pillar inscription of Sarnath.
The Topra and Meerut pillar inscriptions were installed in Delhi by Firuz Tughlaq, and the Kaushambi pillar inscriptions were installed in Prayag Fort by Akbar. The Government of India adopted the shape of the lions on top of its Sarnath pillar as its State Emblem.
Stone artifacts and writings from the Ashoka period were made from Chunar sandstone in Mirzapur. According to Buddhist traditions, Emperor Ashoka had built 84,000 stupas. Hiuen Tsang mentioned the existence of many stupas in places like Mathura, Kannauj, Kaushambi, Shravasti, Kashi, etc., in Uttar Pradesh. The Dharmarajika Stupa in Sarnath still exists today.
Shunga Dynasty
A Brahmin named Pushyamitra Sunga treacherously murdered the last Maurya emperor, Brihadratha, in 184 BC and took over the Maurya Empire. He made his capital at Vidisha instead of Pataliputra. The inscription of Ayodhya shows that he was a follower of the Brahmin religion and performed two Ashwamedha Yagyas under the chairmanship of Patanjali. Despite being a follower of the Brahmin religion, he was tolerant. He built a stupa in Bharhut (Satna) and also improved the Sanchi stupa built during the time of Ashoka. During this period, there was a revival of Sanskrit language, architecture, and the Brahmin religion in Uttar Pradesh.
Kanva Dynasty
Later, the ruling power of Kanva dynasty was established on the foundation of Sunga dynasty. The first king of this dynasty was Vasudev. This dynasty ruled North India from 75 BC to about 30 BC.
Indo-Greek invasion
The first attack on India was carried out by the Greeks known as Indo-Greeks. In the early second century BC, the Indo-Greeks had seized a large area in northwestern India. However, their conquest in this region was halted after their defeat by the Sungas in the Ganga valley. They were only able to advance further after the end of the Shunga and Kanva dynasties. Patanjali’s Mahabhasya reveals that the Yavanas had surrounded Saket and had penetrated deep into the Ganga valley. Among the Indo-Greek rulers, Menander’s name is the most famous. His empire extended from Jhelum to Mathura, and Shakal (Sialkot) served as its capital. With the establishment of this Yavana Empire, the Greeks were influenced by Indian religion, and conversely, Indians learned much from Greek culture in areas such as art, science, currency, and astrology. The Gandhara art style is one of their contributions, and some of their influences are also visible in Mathura art.
The Shakas (Shaka Dynasty)
The Shakas were originally a nomadic and barbaric race living near the Syr Darya (Central Asia), who entered India through Iran and captured a large area of land by destroying the Greek power in India.
Following the Greeks, the Shakas, also known as the Scythians, overpowered Greek influence in both Bactria and India. They controlled a much larger portion of India than the Greeks did. The Shakas had five branches, each with their own seat of power in different parts of India and Afghanistan. One branch settled in Afghanistan, the second in Punjab with Taxila as their capital, the third in Mathura where they ruled for approximately two centuries, the fourth branch extended their control over western India, and the fifth branch established power in the upper Deccan region.
The first Kshatrap of the Mathura branch was Rajul, who is mentioned in an inscription in Brahmi found from Mora (Mathura). After Rajul, his son Shodas became the king. The rule of the Shakas of Mathura extended from eastern Punjab to Mathura.
The Kushans
The Kushans were a branch of the Yu-Chi tribes residing in the border areas of China. They defeated the Parthians, Greeks, and other Shakas in northwestern India, establishing the Kushan dynasty.
The first ruler was Kujula Kadphises, succeeded by Vim Kadphises. Coins featuring figures of Shiva, Nandi, and Trishul have been found in Mathura, suggesting a possible affiliation with the Shaiva religion.
Kanishka, the greatest of the Kushan kings, initiated the Shaka era in 78 AD, still used by the Government of India. Coins and inscriptions discovered in large parts of Uttar Pradesh confirm this region’s connection to the Kushan Empire. Kanishka’s empire extended from Gandhara to Awadh and Varanasi, with Purushpur (Peshawar) as its capital.
Discoveries in Mathura, including coins, inscriptions, structures, and statues from the Kushan period, indicate Mathura was the second capital of the Kushans in India. During Kanishka’s time, two distinct art styles, Gandhara and Mathura, emerged. By the third century, Kushan dominance waned in the central region, leading to the rise of smaller states.
The Gupta Empire
The era of decentralization that began after the disintegration of the Kushan Empire continued until the rise of the Gupta dynasty in the beginning of the fourth century AD. During this intervening period, almost all parts, including North India, were ruled by small states and republics.
The Gupta dynasty was established in Magadha in 275 AD by Maharaja Shri Gupta. After Shri Gupta, his son Ghatotkacha became the ruler. Following Ghatotkacha, his son Chandragupta I became the ruler of Magadha, becoming the first glorious king of this dynasty. He extended the boundaries of Magadha to Kashi and Kosala and initiated the Gupta era in 319-20 AD.
After Chandragupta I, his son Samudragupta took control of the Magadha Empire. He is often referred to as the ‘Napoleon of India‘, and his Uttarapatha and Dakshinapatha campaigns are mentioned in the Prayag Prashasti. Among the 12 states of Uttarapatha, 4 were located in Uttar Pradesh, making the entire region a part of the Gupta Empire.
Following Samudragupta, his son Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya) ascended the throne. He was a great patron of learning, with a group of ‘Navratna’ (nine scholars) in his court, including Kalidas, Dhanvantari, Kshapanak, Amar Singh, Shanku, Vetalbhatta, Ghatkarpar, Varamihir, and Varuchi. His reign is often referred to as the golden age of the Gupta period. Temple art flourished during the Gupta period, with remains found in Bhitargaon (Kanpur), Bhitri Ghazipur, and Deogarh (Jhansi) in Uttar Pradesh. The Gupta period in Uttar Pradesh witnessed unique developments in economic, educational, and cultural activities.
Post-Gupta Period
After the decline of the Gupta period, a trend emerged in the political history of India that remained dominant in various forms until about 1000 AD. This trend was the spirit of decentralization and regionalism. The first Hun attack took place during the time of Skandagupta. Although they were defeated and driven away, the Gupta Empire started to decline after Skandagupta. Continuous attacks by the Huns from the northwest led to the collapse of the Gupta empire around 550 AD.
The White Huns from the northwest, under the leadership of Toraman and Mihirkul, attacked Mathura, Kannauj, and Kaushambi, burning these cities. Simultaneously, Isanvarma, the ruler of the Maukhari dynasty in Kannauj, defeated the Huns and liberated North India from their control. The rule of the Maukhari dynasty over Kannauj was short-lived, and the power of the Pushyabhuti (Vardhana) dynasty was established over it.
By the 7th century, Kannauj (Uttar Pradesh) became the political center of North India, replacing Pataliputra.
Pushyabhuti (Vardhana dynasty)
The founder of the Pushyabhuti (Vardhana) dynasty was Pushyabhuti. Starting with Pushyabhuti, three rulers were feudal lords, but the fourth ruler, Prabhakarvardhan, elevated this dynasty to an independent ruling power in Thaneshwar. Harshavardhana was Prabhakarvardhana’s son.
Harsha Vardhan established Kannauj as his capital instead of Thaneshwar, once again positioning North India at the forefront of politics. Harsha’s empire extended from Thaneshwar to the banks of the Narmada River in the south and from Ganjam in the east to Ballabhi in the west. Kannauj was called ‘Mahodaya Shri‘ due to its prosperity. The rule and prosperity of Kannauj during Harsha’s period are detailed in the descriptions of Hiuen Tsang, the Chinese traveler. Harshvardhan used to organize the Mahamoksha Parishad in Prayag every fifth year, and Hiuen Tsang participated in one of these assemblies. Similarly, a scholarly assembly was organized in Kannauj, presided over by Hiuen Tsang.
After Harsha, turmoil once again engulfed North India.
Triangular conflict
After the Vardhan dynasty, Kannauj remained under the rule of a powerful leader named Yashovarman for some time. Later, the Ayudha dynasty took control. During the reign of King Indrayudha of the Ayudha dynasty in the 8th century, a tripartite conflict emerged among the three major powers at that time: Pala, Gurjara-Pratihara, and Rashtrakutas, all vying for supremacy over Kannauj (i.e., Northern India). This conflict persisted for about 200 years and concluded with the ultimate victory of the Gurjara Pratiharas in Kannauj. The Pratihar king was a courageous warrior, and his empire extended from Multan to Saurashtra and from Bihar to Vindhya.
Rulers like Mihirbhoj, Mahipal, and Mahendrapal were prominent figures of this dynasty. Among them, Raja Bhoj was the most powerful. Suleman visited India during this period. Bhoj was a follower of the Vaishnav religion. Until the 9th and 10th centuries, North India experienced peace and prosperity under the rule of the Gurjara Pratiharas. In 1018 AD, Mahmud Ghaznavi attacked Kannauj, defeated the Pratiharas, looted the city, and perpetrated a massacre.
Situation after Pratiharas
After the defeat of the Pratiharas, anarchy once again spread in the central region (Uttar Pradesh). During this period, two new dynasties emerged in Uttar Pradesh. One of them was the Chandela dynasty of Mahoba, which ruled for about 400 years. Architectural examples of Chandela kings can still be found in Khajuraho. The second was the Gahadwal dynasty of Kannauj and Banaras. With the rise of these two dynasties, peace and order were restored in the central region. The first king of the Gahadwal dynasty was Yashovigrah (1080 to 1085 AD), but the most notable kings of this dynasty were Govind Chandra (1108-1154) and Jayachandra (1170 to 1193).
Due to the kidnapping of Jayachandra’s daughter Sanyogita from the Swayamvar by Prithviraj, in the second battle of Tarain (1192 AD), Jayachandra sided with Muhammad Ghori instead of Prithviraj, leading to Prithviraj Chauhan’s defeat. In 1194, Ghori spared no one, including Jayachandra, in the battle of Chandawar (Etawah). Gradually, the central region fell into the hands of the Turks.
Delhi Sultanate
The rule of the Ghulam dynasty began with the ascension of Muhammad Ghori’s confidant, Ghulam Qutubuddin Aibak (1206 AD), to the throne of Delhi. After Aibak, Iltutmish became the Sultan of this dynasty. Before becoming Sultan, Iltutmish was the ruler of Badaun.
The Sultans of the Ghulam dynasty, Khalji dynasty, and Tughlaq dynasty gradually expanded the boundaries of Delhi. Most of the area of present-day Uttar Pradesh was a part of this empire. Although Sambhal, Kara, and Badaun were handed over to major jagirdars, the entire region continued to oppose the Sultans of Delhi.
Sultan Firuz Tughlaq of the Tughlaq dynasty built two new cities, Firozabad and Jaunpur, in Uttar Pradesh. Jaunpur was established in memory of Muhammad bin Tughlaq, alias Jauna Khan. After the attack of Timur (1398 AD), the rule of the Tughlaq dynasty ended.
Even before the end of the Tughlaq dynasty, in 1394 AD, the Sharqi Kingdom was established in Jaunpur in eastern Uttar Pradesh by Malik Sarwar Khwaja Jahan, the chief amir of Firuz Tughlaq and rebel Subedar of Nasiruddin Tughlaq. It is known that Malik Sarwar was made the ruler of the eastern regions by giving him the title of ‘Malik us Sharq’ (Lord of the East) by the Sultans of the Tughlaq dynasty. Because of this title, the empire established by him was called the Sharqi Kingdom. Sharqi Sultans beautified Jaunpur city with many grand palaces, mosques, and tombs. During this period, as Jaunpur became a major centre of education, culture, art, and trade, it came to be known as ‘Shiraz-e-Hindustan’ (Shiraz of the East).
Sultan Bahlol Lodi of Delhi conquered Jaunpur in 1484 AD and merged the Sharqi Kingdom into the Delhi Sultanate. It is known that the previous Sultans of Delhi were Turks, but Lodi Sultan was Afghan. The most prominent Lodi Sultan, Sikandar Lodi, laid the foundation of the city of Agra in 1504 AD and made it his sub-capital. After Sikandar Lodi, Ibrahim Lodiascended the throne. Babar defeated Ibrahim in the first battle of Panipat in 1526 and established the Mughal Empire.
Important constructions of the Sultanate period include:
Jaunpur was founded by Firuz shah Tughlaq.
Agra was founded by Sikandar Lodi in 1504 AD.
Jama Masjid and Lal Darwaza of Jaunpur were built by Hussain Shah Sharqi.
Atala Masjid and Jhanjhari Masjid of Jaunpur were built by Ibrahim Shah Sharqi.
Jama Masjid of Badaun was built by Iltutmish.
Mughal Period
Zaheeruddin Muhammad Babar established the Mughal Empire on the ruins of the Delhi Sultanate in 1526 AD. In his initial days, Babar faced resistance from the Afghans of Ganga Ghati, Sambhal, Jaunpur, Ghazipur, Kalpi, Etawah, and Kannauj. Therefore, with the aim of completely exterminating the Afghans, Babar defeated Mahmud Lodi and Nusrat Shah on the banks of Ghaghra in 1529. He also defeated Rana Sanga in the battle of Khanwa and took control of Awadh and Kannauj. Babar died in Agra in 1530 AD, and his son Humayun was made the emperor of Delhi, but he was badly defeated by Sher Shah Suri, the founder of the Sur dynasty.
| Mughal period architecture
Jami Masjid of Sambhal and Babri Masjid of Ayodhya were built by Babar’s commander, Mir Banki. Akbar built the forts of Fatehpur Sikri, Agra, and Allahabad. Panchmahal, Khas Mahal, Jodhabai Mahal, Birbal Mahal, Jama Masjid, Buland Darwaza, Sheikh Salim Chishti Tomb, and Islam Khan’s tomb were constructed by Akbar in Fatehpur Sikri. Jahangiri Palace in Agra was also built by Akbar. The tomb of Itmad-ud-Daula was constructed by Noorjahan Begum in Agra. Jahangir built Akbar’s tomb and the tomb of Maryam-uz-Zamani in Sikandra. Shahjahan built the Taj Mahal, Diwan-e-Aam, Diwan-e-Khas, and Moti Masjid in the Agra Fort. Sher Shah Suri built a total of four roads: (1) From Sonar village (Bengal) to Lahore (G.T. Road). (2) From Agra to Burhanpur. (3) From Agra to Chittor. (4) From Lahore to Multan. |
Sher Shah Suri was an Afghan, and his childhood name was Farid Khan. Sher Shah’s father, Hasan, managed Kabaspur, Sahasram, and Hajipur Tanda, which were received as jagir by Jamal Khan Sherwani, the ruler of Jaunpur. Sher Shah acquired Chunar by marrying Chunar’s widow, Mallika. He ruled Delhi until 1545 AD and died when a cannonball burst during the attack on Kalinjar (1545 AD). After Sher Shah’s death, Humayun became active again and regained control of Delhi in 1555 AD. However, a year later, in 1556 AD, he died after falling from his library (Sher Mandal). Following Humayun’s death, his son Akbar was crowned as the ruler of Delhi in 1556 AD in Kalanaur, Punjab.
With Akbar becoming the Mughal ruler, a new era began in Indian history. This was an era of peace, prosperity, strong administration, generosity, and coordination of Hindu and Muslim cultures. This process of coordination continued until the time of Akbar’s successors Jahangir and Shahjahan. During this period of prosperity, Uttar Pradesh was given the name ‘Hindustan’ by the then Muslim historians. Two famous ministers included in Akbar’s Navratnas, Todarmal (Sitapur), and Birbal (Kalpi), were from Uttar Pradesh. Agra was the capital of the Mughal Empire until Shah Jahan made Delhi the capital of the Mughals. Akbar started the construction of a fort in Fatehpur Sikri, 36 km away from Agra, in 1572 AD, which was completed in eight years. The world-famous mausoleum named Taj Mahal, built by Shah Jahan in Agra in memory of his wife Arjumand Banu Begum, alias Mumtaz Mahal, after her death, is considered a gem of art. The marble Moti Masjid built in the Agra Fort was also constructed by Shahjahan.
After Shah Jahan, Mughal power fell into the hands of Aurangzeb. However, due to his abandonment of the policy of liberalism and adoption of religious fanaticism, the process of the Mughal Empire’s decline started during his reign.
Following Aurangzeb, almost all the Mughal emperors were of weak character and incompetence, which prevented them from preserving their power. By 1757 AD, five independent states had been established in present-day Uttar Pradesh. Najib Khan Pathan governed the north of Meerut and Bareilly, Rohelkhand was under the Ruhels in Meerut and Doab region, Central Doab region was under the Nawab of Farrukhabad, present Awadh and eastern districts were ruled by the Nawab of Awadh, and Bundelkhand was under Maratha rule.
Nawabs of Awadh (1722–1856)
Awadh was a province of the Mughal Empire, encompassing a large part of present-day Uttar Pradesh and some parts of Bihar. Taking advantage of the weakness of the Mughal Empire, in 1722, Subedar Saadat Khan Burhan-ul-Mulk of Awadh established an autonomous state. After Saadat Khan, his son-in-law and nephew, Safdarjung, ruled Awadh. Following him, Shuja-ud-Daula and Asaf-ud-Daula became the rulers of Awadh. Asaf-ud-Daula shifted his capital from Faizabad to Lucknow. In 1819 AD, Saadat Khan, the seventh ruler of this dynasty, assumed the title of the King of Awadh. The last ruler of the line of independent rulers of Awadh was Wajid Ali Shah. In 1856, Lord Dalhousie brought Awadh under British rule.