Introduction
Soil is the most important layer of the earth’s crust. It is a valuable resource. The bulk of our food and much of our clothing is derived from land-based crops that grow in the soil. The soil on which we depend so much for our day-to-day needs has evolved over thousands of years.
‘Soil is the mixture of rocks debris and organic materials which develop on the earth’s surface’.
Components of the Soil
In general, soil is made up of four elements :
- Mineral particles : Inorganic or mineral fraction – derived from the parent material
- Humus : Organic matter – decayed and decomposed plants and animals
- Air
- Water
Apart from the above mentioned four components, many types of micro-organisms are also found in the soil.
The actual amount of each component depend upon the type of soil. Some soils are deficient in one or more of these, while there are some others that have varied combinations.
Factors Affecting Soil Formation
The major factors affecting the formation of soil are :
- Relief,
- Parent material,
- Climate,
- Vegetation, and other life forms; and
- Time
Classification of Soils
The soils of Uttar Pradesh are classified into two ways :
A. The soils of Uttar Pradesh have been divided into two parts on the basis of scientific analysis of Prof. Wadia, Krishnan and Mukherjee.
-
- One, soils the great Gangetic plain;
- Two, soils of the ancient Ravedar and Vindhyan style or Bundelkhandian soils of the South Plateau.
B. Uttar Pradesh is divided into three physical divisions, one of which is the basis of land texture. Therefore, we will study the soil of the state in the order of these departments.
-
- Soils of Bhabar and Terai region
- Soil of great Gangetic plain
- the soils of the hill-plateau region of the south
Description of soils
Soils of Bhabar and Tarai Region
The northern part of the state can be divided into two parts;
- One, Bhabar and
- the other Terai.
Due to the heavy deposits of the Himalayan rivers in the Bhabar region, the soil here is made of pebbles and coarse sand, which is very shallow. So the water goes down. Agricultural work is impossible in this area. Mostly shrubs and forests are found here.
Whereas the soil of Terai region formed by the deposition of fine particles is flat, marshy, moist and fertile. The yield of sugarcane and paddy is good in this soil.
Soil of great Gangetic plain
The vast Ganga-Yamuna plain situated in the central part of the state from east to west is made up of the deposits of various rivers from the Pleistocene era till today.
The soil found in this plain is called alluvial or alluvial or Bhat soil which is made up of alluvial soil, mud and sand.
This soil is very deep and is in a fully developed condition.
Potash and lime are available in abundance in this, while there is lack of phosphorus, nitrogen and organic matter.
Both the Khadar and Bhangar soils contains calcareous concretions ( Kankars ).
The colour of the alluvial soil varies from the light grey to ash grey.
Almost the entire soil of this plain is broadly divided into two classes —
- Khadar or alluvial or new alluvial soil and
- Bangar or old alluvial soil.
Apart from this, some amount of saline, alkaline, desert, Bhud ( भूड़ – sandy or porous soil ) and black soils are also found in this region.
Khadar soil :-
The soil which is changed by the rivers with each flood is called Khadar or Kachhari or New Alluvial soil.
This soil is light brown in colour, fine grained with holes and has the ability to hold more water than Bangar.
The amount of lime, potash, magnesium and organic elements is high in this soil.
They are deficient in Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Humus.
It is also known by the names of Balua, Silt Balua, Domat, Matiyar or Matiyar Domat etc.
Although the layers of Khadar soils are not deposited to a great depth, yet due to being formed from the new sedimentary materials brought by the rivers, their fertility is high and there is no need to fertilize.
Bhangar soil :-
That part of the Ganga-Yamuna plains where the flood water of the rivers does not reach, the soil there is called Bangar or old alluvial soil ( mature soil ).
It is also known by the names of Uparhar soil ( in east UP ), loam, Matiyar Balui Domat, Matiyar Domat etc.
Bhangar soil is mature and more deep.
Due to their continuous use in agriculture since ancient times, their fertility power has decreased and there is a need to give fertilizers in large quantities.
Due to intensive agriculture and unorganized management, these soils are becoming deficient in nitrogen and phosphorous, therefore fertilizers containing these components are required more.
Saline and Alkaline soils
About 10% of the soil of the state has become barren i.e. Usara soils. The following are the reasons for barren soil in the area of Bhangar soil —
- leveling of the land and lack of proper management of drainage,
- irrigation from canals,
- lack of rainfall,
- irrigation with saline water,
- excess of irrigation,
- plowing to the same depth.
- continuous use of alkaline fertilizers etc.
This barren land ( Usara soil ) is found in the districts of Aligarh, Mainpuri, Kanpur, Unnao, Etah, Etawah, Rae Bareli, Sultanpur, Pratapgarh, Jaunpur, Prayagraj etc.
Barren land is also known by the names Reh, Banjar and Kallar.
The presence of an excess of sodium salts and the predominance of sodium in the exchangeable complex are divided into the two main groups :
- saline soil and
- alkaline soil. Alkali soils may be divided into following two groups –
- Saline-alkali soils – When they contain soluble salts in excess they are known as saline-alkali soils.
- Non-saline-alkali soils (Alkali soil) – When they do not contain soluble salts, they are called non-saline-alkali soils.
Saline soils contain an excess of sodium salts, but its colloidal material is not yet sodiumised.
In the case of alkali soils, the exchange complex contains appreciable quantities of exchangeable sodium. Such soils may or may not contain excess salts.
The salts of saline barren land are mostly made up of sodium, potassium, sulphate and calcium which can be seen as a white layer on the upper surface of the land. Their PH is less than 8.5.
The surface of alkaline barren land is black due to sodium salts and PH is more than 8.5.
Saline vs Alkaline soil :-
- Similarities
- Both soils have a pH greater than 7.
- In both soils, the availability of plants nutrients is low.
- Both soils do not favour plant growth.
- Both soils occur in areas having little rainfall.
- Mineral weathering too causes the development of both these soils.
- Differences
- The pH of the saline soils ranges in between 7 to 8.5 while the pH of the alkaline soils is greater than 8.5.
- Saline soils have an exchangeable sodium percentage of less than 15% while alkaline soils have an exchangeable sodium percentage greater than 15%.
- The electrical conductivity of saline soil is high while it is low in alkaline soils.
- The organic matter content in saline soils is comparatively higher than alkaline soils.
- Saline soil is white to lite grey in colour while alkaline soil is black in colour.
Farmers are advised to add gypsum to solved the problem of salinity in the soil.
Arid Soil
The colour of arid soil ranges from red to brown. They are generally sandy in structure and saline in nature. Due to dry climate, high temperature & accelerated evaporation, arid soil lack moisture and humus and organic matters. Nitrogen is insufficient and the phosphate content is normal. Lower horizons of arid soils are occupied by kankar layers.
This soil is mainly found in Rajasthan. Arid soil is also found in the western districts of Uttar Pradesh, such as Mathura, Agra and Aligarh.
Coarse grains are cultivated in this soil with the help of irrigation.
Bhud Soil
10 to 20 feet high mounds of sandy soil formed long ago in the areas of Ganga-Yamuna and their tributaries are called Bhud. It is a light loam.
Black soil ( Regur )
Black soil is also found at some places in the western districts of the state and in the Bundelkhand region, which is called karel or cotton soil in the local language.
The soils of the hill-plateau region of the south
In the southern part of the state, that is, in the hill-plateau region, there is abundance of rocks of Pre-Cambrian era. As a result of the breakdown of these rocks and many physical, chemical and biological activities, the soils of this region have been formed.
This region includes Lalitpur, Jhansi, Jalaun, Hamirpur, Mahoba, Banda, Chitrakoot, Southern Prayagraj, Mirzapur, Sonbhadra across Ganga and some areas of Chandauli district.
Dry farming is done in almost the entire Bundelkhand region and the yield is average. The use of fertilizers and water also gives good yield.
In general the soil of this region is called Bundelkhandian soil but with slight differences different types of soils are found here; Such as red soil, Parwa ( Padwa ), Mar ( Maad ), Rakar ( Rakar ) and Bhonta etc.
Red Soil
Red soil is found in southern Prayagraj, Jhansi, Mirzapur, Sonbhadra and Chandauli districts.
This soil has been formed by the disintegration of sandy red Vindhya rocks.
They are generally deficient in nitrogen, phosphorous, lime and humus and excess of iron content is found in the soil.
The red of this soil is due to ferric oxide.
Pulses and oilseeds are cultivated in the areas having this soil.
Parwa Soil
This soil is also called Padwa or Paduwa, which is found in the coastal areas of Hamirpur, Jalaun and Yamuna, especially in ravines.
It is light reddish brown colored sandy loam soil which is deficient in organic matter.
Moderate fertility can be achieved in this soil by irrigation and application of fertilizers. Jowar ( kharif ) and gram ( rabi ) crops are grown in this soil.
Mar ( Maad ) Soil
Mar ( maad ) soil is the clay soil, which is smooth and black like black soil. It contains 60% silicate, 15% iron and 25% aluminum. It contains very less amount of water.
On getting water, this soil becomes sticky like glue. Agricultural work is difficult in this soil, so some crops of short duration are grown.
This soil is found in the western districts of the state.
Rakar ( Rakad ) Soil
Rakar ( Rakad ) soil is a reddish-brown granular soil which is generally found on the slopes.
There are two types of it as thick rakar and thin rakar. Thick rakar is Maad ( Mar ) like soil and thin rakar is light soil.
There is a lack of organic matter in this soil. Some crops can be grown in it with the use of manure. Generally, sesame ( Kharif ) and gram ( Rabi ) are cultivated in this soil.
Bhonta Soil
These are formed by the breakdown of rocks of Vindhya range. Bhonta soil is somewhat reddish in colour. Where there is a mixture of light loam with these rocky particles, coarse grains are cultivated in this soil.
| Soil | local name / other name |
| Khadar | New alluvium, kachahari ( कछारी ), domat ( दोमट ), matiyar ( मटियार ), sandy silt ( सिल्ट बलुआ या रेतीली गाद ) |
| Bhangar | Old alluvium, Uparhar soil ( उपरहार मृदा ), domat, matiyar, balui-domat |
| Usara
( Saline and alkaline ) |
Reh, wasteland ( बंजर ), kallar ( कल्लर ) |
| Loamy or sandy soil
( high mound ) |
Bhud |
| Black soil | Regur, farel, cotton soil |
| Soil of Bundelakhand | Red soil, Parwa or Padwa soil, Mar or Mad soil, Rakar or Rakad soil, Bhonta soil. |
| Major soils of Uttar Pradesh:
(1) foothill soils (2) Tarai soils (3) alluvial soils (4) Red and yellow soils (5) Mixed red and black soils (6) Medium black soils (7) Calcareous soils (8) Salt affected soils (9) Red loamy soils
|
Problems of Soils
Due to excessive irritation and use of fertilisers about 10% of land of the State has become barren ( Usara ). The affected Districts of the State are – Aligarh, Mainpuri, Kanpur, Unnao, Etah, Etawah, Rae Bareli, Sultanpur, Pratapgarh, Jaunpur and Prayagraj.
Saline or alkaline soil is found in the western and southern regions of the state, while acidic soil is found in some parts of the eastern regions ( in the Terai parts ) of the state.
Total wasteland in the State is 10988.59 sq km. It is spread over the area, which is 4.56 percent of the total area of the state.
Most wasteland in the state of Rajasthan and the lowest is in Goa.
The main problems of soils are as follows :
- Soil degradation or declining of soil fertility
- Soil Erosion
- Salinity and alkanity
- Water-logging
- Desertification
Soil degradation
Soil degradation can be defined as the decline in soil fertility, when the nutritional status decline & depth of the soil goes down due to erosion and misuse.
The natural fertility of the soil is rapidly depleting due to centuries of over-exploitation and cultivation of many crops without following proper agricultural pattern.
Decreasing soil fertility is mainly seen in the areas of Green Revolution; Like western Uttar Pradesh, Punjab and Haryana.
To get maximum yield, farmers use excessive inputs year after year. For example, production of paddy and sugarcane in wheat-bearing areas by means of irrigation.
In fact, unscientific rotation of crops ( wheat and rice ) over many decades has significantly reduced soil fertility in the Great Plains of India.
Cultivation of leguminous crops after complete tillage of the soil can improve the soil fertility of the affected areas.
Soil Erosion
The destruction of the soil cover or the removal of top soil is described as soil erosion.
The soil forming process and the erosional processes of running water and wind go on simultaneously.
As long as there is a balance between soil formation processes and soil erosion, no problems arise. When this balance is disturbed, soil erosion becomes a threat.
Indiscriminate felling of trees, careless overgrazing of pastures, unscientific runoff practices and improper use of land are some of the important reasons for disturbing this balance.
Water and wind are two powerful agents of soil erosion because of their ability to remove soil and transport it.
Out of the two major types of soil erosion – water erosion and wind erosion, in Uttar Pradesh water erosion has more effect than wind erosion. Almost the entire region is affected by water erosion, while wind erosion is limited to certain areas and times.
In the state, the western region is affected by wind erosion while the Terai, eastern and southern regions are affected by water erosion.
Soil erosion caused by water or water erosion :- Water erosion may be classified under three categories —
- Sheet erosion
- Rill erosion
- Gully erosion
Sheet erosion is also known as surface erosion and uniform removal of soil from surface of the soil. Sheet erosion takes place on level lands after a heavy shower. The soil removal is not easily noticeable. But it is harmful since it removes the finer and more fertile top soil. Sheet erosion is also called death of farmers.
Rill erosion is common on steep slopes. In this the running water makes finger-shaped groves in the the land.
Gully erosion is common on steep slopes. Rill deepen with rainfall, cut the agricultural lands into small fragments and make them unfit for cultivation. A region with a large number of deep gullies or Ravines is called a badland topography. Chambal river catchment area ( MP, UP and Rajasthan ) is most affected by gully erosion. In the context of Uttar Pradesh, Etawah district is particularly affected by gully erosion. Because of this, badland topography ( = rugged terrains – बीहड़ ) are found in Agra, Etawah and Jalaun districts.
Terai region of the state is most affected by water erosion.
Wind erosion :-
Soil erosion by wind in the state is more in the summer months. Due to wind erosion 3200 acres of agricultural land in South-Western Uttar Pradesh is being destroyed every year and the percentage of desert soil is increasing. Agra, Mathura, Etawah etc. districts of the state are more affected by wind erosion.
Salinity and Alkalinity
Soil salinity and alkalinity are found in the relatively less rainfall recording areas where the rate of evaporation is generally higher than the rate of precipitation. They also develop in the Khadar lands and the canal irrigated areas. Under such conditions, the ground water level rises and saline and alkaline efflorescence consisting of salts of sodium, calcium, and manganese appear on the surface as a layer of white salt through capillary action.
Water-Logging
An area is said to be waterlogged when the water table rises to the extent that soil pores in the root zone of a crop become saturated, resulting in the restriction of normal circulation of the air, decline in the level of oxygen, and an increase in the level of carbon dioxide.
The main causes of water-logging are :-
- Seepage of water from canals
- Mismanagement of farm water
- Lack of drainage
- Blockage or interception of natural drainage
- Indiscriminate cultivation in bed of drainage channel
- Inundation of marine delta cycles
- Inundation in coastal areas during cyclonic storms.
Water logging has affected substantial tracts of land along the Indira Gandhi Canal (Rajasthan) and the canals of Punjab, Haryana, and Uttar Pradesh.
Adequate development of drainage and lining of the canals to reduce water seepage can go a long way in the reclamation of water-logged areas.
Desertification
Desertification is a process of degradation of the land by which a fertile land changes itself into a desert or arid zone by losing its flora and fauna. Desertification can be caused by drought, deforestation, climate change, human activities or improper agriculture. It occurs because of man-made activities and climate change. Desertification takes place when a particular type of biome converts into a desert biome.
Reasons of desertification are as follows
- Overgrazing
- Deforestation
- Farming Practices
- Urbanization and other types of land development i.e. Human activities
- Climate Change
- Stripping the land of resources
- Natural Disasters
Soil Conservation
Soil conversation is a methodology to maintain soil fertility, prevent soil erosion and exhaustion, and improve the degraded condition of the soil.
Soil erosion is actually a man-made problem, so it can also be stopped by him. Some of the measures to prevent soil erosion are as follows :
- Contour bunding and contour terracing.
- Regulated forestry.
- Controlled grazing.
- Selective weed killer
- Cover cropping.
- Mixed forming.
- Crop rotation.
The following efforts should be made to prevent gully erosion :
- In bigger gullies, the erosive velocity of water may be reduced by constructing a series of check dams.
- Special attention should be made to control headward extension of gullies. This can be done by –
- gully plugging,
- terracing and
- by planting cover vegetation.
In arid and semi-arid areas, the spread of sand dunes on arable land should be prevented by planting protective belts or rows of forests. Measures should be taken to stabilise the sand dunes. Uncultivable land should be converted into pastures for grazing.
The land should be used only after classifying it according to its potential. That is, the crop which is suitable for the climate should be grown only and not any crop can be grown anywhere with the help of irrigation, fertilizers and HYV-seeds. For example, production of paddy and sugarcane in green revolution areas.
Measures of soil conservation
|
Summary
Uttar Pradesh is divided into three physical divisions. One of the basis of this division is the texture of the land. That’s why the soil of the Uttar Pradesh is also studied by classifying it into three parts.
( 1 ) Soil in Terai Region – The soil in this region is alluvial but of some special Bhabar and Tarai type which has following features –
- The soil is more coarse grained and varys from sandy to loamy.
- The soil is a little bit acidic and has low water retention capacity.
- Various crops like sugarcane, rice, wheat and pulses are cultivated in this type of soil.
(2) Soil in the Gangetic Plain – The soil is developed from the alluvial deposited by Ganga and its tributaries. There are two variety of this soil-
(i) Bhangar – This is old alluvial soil formed on flood plain where river used to flow.
(ii) Khadar – This is new alluvial soil formed on flood plain where river is currently Following.
- These soils have loamy texture which is fine balance of sand and clay. It has good water retention capacity.
- These soils are very fertile. So it is good for all major crops such as wheat, rice, sugracane, barley, pea etc.
(3) Soils of Plateau and Vindhyanchal Region – The parent materials of these soils are gneiss, granite, sand stone, limestone and dolomite where as climate is hot dry type. So, mainly physical weathering has occured.
- The texture of this soil is loamy but has coarse grain features like stoniness and gravelliness.
The colour of these soils are mix of red and black texture though these are slightly alkaline and have low water retention capacity. - The major crops that are cultivated, are ‘Coarse grains’ like bajra, pigeon pea ( arhar ) etc. along with wheat.